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IAC-18-E1.4.11
Distance Master's Degree in Astronautical Engineering
Mike Gruntmana*
a Department of Astronautical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA,[email protected]*Corresponding author
Resume
The Department of Astronautical Engineering at the University of Southern California (USC) focuses on space engineering education. Since its founding in 2004, the Department has awarded more than 500 master's degrees to students from across the United States, Canada, and overseas military installations. Online students account for two-thirds of degrees earned. Continuing education with online course delivery has become an integral feature of workforce development in the space industry and US government centers. This article discusses the origin, rationale, focus, structure , the course, scope, and achievements of the USC Astronautics program, particularly its specificities in serving a large population of online students. It concludes with the lessons learned and describes the trends in the evolution of the program.
Keywords: astronautical engineering; space engineering; graduation certificates; online education
Acronyms/Abbreviations
ABET - Accreditation Council for Engineering and Technology
ASEE - American Society for Engineering Education
ASTE – Department of Astronautical Engineering AY – academic year DEN – Distance Education Network ITAR – International Traffic in Arms
MS ASTE Regulation – Master in Astronautics
Engenharia USC – University of Southern California VSOE – Viterbi School of Engineering, USC
1. Introduction In June 2004, the University of Southern California
(USC) has established a new independent academic unit focused on space engineering [1,2]. This development broke with an academic tradition in the United States [3] of combining aeronautical and astronautical disciplines in departments of aerospace engineering or in joint departments with other areas of engineering.
The new USC Viterbi School of Engineering (VSOE) Department of Astronautical Engineering (ASTE) has successfully introduced the full suite of degrees (bachelor's, BS, MS, engineering, doctoral, and graduate certificate) in astronautical engineering. The growth of the new Department and student interest in its programs demonstrated that academic units focused on pure space engineering could succeed in a highly competitive educational field of some seventy aerospace programs [1] offered by American universities.
This article focuses on the Department's largest educational component, its flagship Master of Astronautical Engineering (MS ASTE) program, specifically geared to meet the needs of the space industry and government space research and development centers. Continuing education, particularly in online course delivery, has become an integral feature of workforce development in the US space sector. Online students account for two-thirds of master's degrees earned in this USC program.
The article first describes the rationale for establishing the new department and outlines its programs. It then focuses on the MS ASTE program structure, courses, students, instructors, and online outreach to working professionals, practicing engineers, through distance learning. The article concludes by discussing lessons learned and trends in the evolution of the program. 2. Space Engineering at USC
The rationale for breaking with tradition and establishing an academic department focused on pure space engineering has been described in negligible detail in [1,2]. Briefly, the onset of the space age in the 1950s led to the expansion of the field and the changing of the names of many existing aeronautical engineering departments to "aerospace" or some variant of "aeronautics and astronautics" [3]. The curriculum, however, remained focused on fluid sciences and aeronautical engineering and applications. Universities have added some courses on space-related topics, most notably orbital mechanics and rocket propulsion. At the same time, the US space effort greatly expanded into space science, exploration, and national security.
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The Board for Accreditation of Engineering and Technology (ABET) recognized astronautical engineering as a separate degree from aerospace in the 1980s. In the United States it had reached 68 [1]. Space technology greatly drives the continuous establishment of new university departments and programs in the aerospace field. Despite advances, fluid sciences with aeronautical and astronautical applications do not have equal status in many current aerospace programs. The space curriculum at many universities is limited, and the age-old question "Is there anything aerospace?" [4] remains.
USC aerospace engineering was very typical of the country. The university is located in Los Angeles, at the center of a large cluster of space companies and government research and development centers. At the same time, most of the faculty of the new Department of Aerospace Engineering, founded in 1964, focused on aeronautical fluid dynamics research [5]. They had little incentive to be interested in space technology.
On a historical note, the first man on the moon, Neil Armstrong, was one of USC's most distinguished aerospace graduates at the time (Fig. 1). He studied part-time in the early 1960s while working at Edwards Air Force Base, California, as a test pilot [1,6].
After rapid growth and large enrollments, the US aerospace student population declined in the mid-1990s following the end of the Cold War [3]. The US astronautics-oriented college's response to the prevailing atmosphere of doom and gloom of the 1990s was to found the Program in Astronautics and Space Technology (Astronautics Program). We take advantage of our strategic location in Los Angeles and focus on the mastery first.
The focus on master's students took advantage of the resources of the Distance Education Network (DEN) at the USC Viterbi School of Engineering, reaching engineers across the country. Additionally, we create courses that are primarily based on part-time instructors, leading experts working in local businesses. The latter made it possible to hire highly qualified instructors in specialized areas without a long and uncertain process of hiring a very limited number of tenured professors.
In 2004, the University reorganized the growing Astronautics Program within the USC Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering into a new, independent academic unit, today the Department of Astronautical Engineering [1,2]. The author of this article served as the founding chair of the department from 2004 to 2007 and chairs it again from 2016 to 2019. He has also continuously directed the master's program since its inception in the mid-1990s.
Based on our experience with the increasingly successful programme, we have called for the establishment of separate pure space engineering departments at some universities to better serve the needs of the space industry and government centers [2]. Importantly, these independent academic astronautical engineering units would change the existing (rarely fair) competition between faculty groups within aerospace departments to (much more level) competition between aerospace, astronautics, and aeronautical departments at various universities.
It was specifically emphasized [2] that the creation of astronautical engineering departments was a practical approach to achieving the desired flexibility within the constraints of the glacially changing realities of academia, fraught with significant inertia and internal politics. The resulting competition between departments and universities would force a balanced mix of programs offered, determined by national and international educational needs, and better respond to the engineering workforce development challenges of the global space enterprise.
In a short period of time since its foundation, the new Department of Astronautical Engineering, focused on the new space, has awarded (as of August 2018) 133 Bachelors of Science
Figure 1. Bronze statue of Neil Armstrong on the USC campus. Sculptor: Jon Hair. Photo (2013): Mike Gruntman.
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degrees, 545 masters of science, 33 doctorates, and 11 graduate certificates. Student opportunities on campus include participation in faculty research as well as student projects such as the Rocket Propulsion Laboratory, which builds and launches solid-propellant rockets, and the Liquid Propulsion Laboratory, which develops engines of liquid rockets. The Space Engineering Research Center, operated jointly with the Institute of Information Sciences of the Viterbi School, involves astronautics students in its programs [1].
Next, we focus on the Master of Science degree, which remains the department's largest program and can be earned by studying on campus or online. 3. Master in Astronautical Engineering
3.1 Admission Requirements The MS ASTE degree is open to qualified students
with bachelor's degrees in engineering, mathematics and exact sciences from regionally accredited universities. In addition to a satisfactory grade point average (GPA) and general record test (GRE) scores, applicants must also provide two letters of recommendation.
In an important distinction of many aerospace programs, students are not required to have a bachelor's degree related to the aerospace industry. This feature of the program is particularly important for professionals seeking their degree online through distance learning.
The modern space industry and government centers employ engineers from diverse backgrounds who specialize in various areas of science and engineering. Many strive to continue their education in a space technology field directly relevant to their industry. Our program paves the way for them to earn a master's degree in astronautical engineering without being exposed to aerospace degree courses.
The required general spacecraft systems design course serves as "boot camp" for students. It introduces key concepts and nomenclature and covers key areas of rocket and space technology. The course is also popular with graduate students who are earning degrees in non-space fields but plan to obtain employment in the space industry. More than 1,800 graduate students have taken this course at USC since 1996, when the author of this article began teaching it.
In addition to scientists and engineers, the MS ASTE program also attracts one or two new students each year with non-technical backgrounds, such as doctors. In cases of limited scientific background, students must take, prior to enrolling in the program, the undergraduate courses in mathematics and physics required in engineering courses. Applicants often take these courses conveniently and inexpensively at community colleges.
3.2 Coursework The required MS ASTE coursework consists of nine
courses, or 27 units, with typical semester-long graduate classes of 3 units each. While USC Viterbi School of Engineering is transitioning its undergraduate programs to 4-unit courses, 3-unit courses will constitute the coursework of our Master's program for the foreseeable future. The program typically offers 9 to 11 astronautics courses each semester. All postgraduate courses are available online, with the exception of some specialized courses designed primarily for PhD students.
To earn the MS ASTE degree, students must take (i) four required courses (12 units); (ii) three basic elective courses (9 units); and (iii) two elective technical subjects (6 units).
Required courses include three general courses on space systems fundamentals; rocket and spacecraft propulsion; and the space environment and spacecraft interactions. The fourth compulsory subject is orbital mechanics. Core electives are selected from the list of space-focused core electives, which includes most graduate astronautics courses.
The remaining two technical electives can be selected from graduate courses outside the home department or from the list of core electives. Most students choose electives from the space-focused core electives, as these courses are the reason they enrolled in the program in the first place.
Virtually all graduate science and engineering courses offered by other departments are approved as technical electives, with the exception of a small number of courses in non-traditional areas such as engineering project management and the like. The MSc in Astronautical Engineering is a traditional engineering degree and not a program in systems engineering, systems architecture, or space studies [1]. Students with a particular interest in such areas are encouraged to change majors to meet their educational goals.
A typical 3-unit course consists of 12-13 three-hour lectures per week and two midterms and final exams. Studies include weekly homework assignments, as well as assignments and/or projects, if applicable. Some core electives provide an introduction to spacecraft subsystems and do not require prerequisites. The more specialized courses have prerequisites. For example, an advanced propulsion course would require a propulsion prerequisite course, and a space navigation course would require an orbital mechanics course.
The students themselves determine the sequence of courses to follow, with the help of faculty advisors. Many choose to begin their studies with the required courses. These extensive courses help them better understand the scope of space technology. Later they can change their plans to specialized courses based on a better understanding of the role of various areas in space systems and operations.
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Table 1 shows the current list of astronautics courses offered for graduate credit. All required courses are available once or twice a year. The department offers core electives and technical electives every year or every other year, depending on student interest. Since online students typically take one course per semester, they spend 4-5 years in the program to earn their degree. With proper planning, they can enroll in the courses that interest them most. Table 1. Astronautics Courses Offered for Graduate Credit. Elective courses are grouped thematically.
Course
Spacecraft Systems Design Required Space Environment and Spacecraft Interactions Orbital Mechanics I Spacecraft Propulsion
Core Electives and Electives Orbital Mechanics II Space Navigation: Theory and Practice Navigation of the Solar System Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics Spacecraft Attitude Control
Liquid rocket propulsion Advanced solid rocket propulsion Spacecraft propulsion Space launch vehicle design
Structural dynamics of spacecraft Structural strength and materials of spacecraft
Spacecraft Thermal Control Spacecraft Power Systems for Remote Space Sensors Spacecraft Sensors Spacecraft Cryogenic Systems and Applications
Design of low-cost space systems Architecture of space studies Human spaceflight entry and landing systems for planetary exploration
Safety of Space Systems and Reliability of Space Missions of Space Systems
At the moment the program covers many spaces
technological areas. However, we always strive to develop new courses to fill existing gaps in the curriculum and develop areas of growing interest. We are adding, for example, new manned spaceflight courses, an area that is set to grow. As of September 2018, the United States was unable to put humans into orbit for more than 2,600 days. This politically inflicted shame
it will end soon, as domestic human spaceflight embarks on an exploration beyond low-Earth orbit, and new commercial spaceflight capabilities emerge.
The availability of qualified instructors, budgets, and distance learning infrastructure constraints limit the introduction of new courses. Even maintaining the current offering of more than two dozen courses in astronautics represents a great administrative challenge, since our instructors occasionally develop schedule conflicts or relocate to other parts of the country, pursuing their professional careers.
Some students, mainly aerospace undergraduates, had contact with compulsory disciplines, such as propulsion and orbital mechanics, during graduation. In these cases, required courses are waived and students take additional technical electives. The master's thesis is not a requirement but an option for students on campus. For online students, writing a thesis is not practical.
4. Instructors and students of the program
4.1 Professors and part-time professors The Master of Astronautical Sciences program
Engineering combines regular full-time professors and part-time instructors. Regular faculty focus primarily on basic science and technology, such as gases and plasmas, the space environment and space science, and the fundamentals of spacecraft design and rocket and spacecraft propulsion. Instruction in specialized subjects and satellite subsystems is provided by part-time faculty who are leading experts employed by industry and government space research and development centers. They bring significant real-world experience in rapidly changing technology areas.
The Los Angeles area offers access to an unmatched wealth of world-class experts in space technology. These part-time teachers are a great strength of the program. They work at government centers and space companies large and small, including Boeing, Lockheed-Martin, Raytheon, Northrop-Grumman, Aerojet-Rocketdyne, Microcosm, Space Environment Technologies, The Aerospace Corporation, and NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
4.2 Master's Students The MS ASTE program attracts full-time students
students on campus and students working full time and studying part time. Full-time students generally take 3 courses each semester and earn their degrees in 1.5 years. Part-time students typically take one course per semester. It takes 4 to 5 years to obtain the degree. They enroll in courses through the Distance Learning Network, even if they live a short distance from campus. The degree can be obtained without visiting the campus. However, some students would fly to Los
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Angeles to attend the festive graduation ceremony on campus and receive their diplomas [7].
Online course delivery is particularly convenient for engineers balancing their job responsibilities, which often include long drives for testing, other professional activities, and family life. Full-time students attend classes in person on campus, which are simulcast live to online students. DEN technicians then upload the captured webcasts to the school's servers. In practice, few online students watch lectures live and most watch them asynchronously at convenient times. Campus students also have full and unlimited access to recorded lectures, providing an excellent opportunity to review specific topics, especially those that present difficulties.
As a matter of policy, the Viterbi School of Engineering does not distinguish between face-to-face and online students. Degree requirements, admission to programs, and assessment of student achievement are identical for all students. Online students have access to instructors and the classroom just like their peers on campus. All graduate students are held to the same high standards and are expected to show the same dedication to their education.
The educational background of our students is truly diverse, as the program admits students with a bachelor's degree in exact sciences and all areas of engineering. Some of our online students already have master's degrees in non-space engineering fields and are successfully working in the space industry.
advance to leadership positions in major space programs.
Additionally, occasional doctoral students in other areas of science and engineering and physicians apply to the MS ASTE program. Some of them join the program to improve their chances of being selected for astronaut training.
Figure 2 shows the annual number of Master of Science degrees in astronautical engineering awarded by the department. The fraction of full-time students (dark blue bars) has grown steadily. On average, the program has awarded nearly 42 degrees annually for the past 10 years and 545 degrees since the department's inception.
The American Society for Engineering Education, ASEE, collects national statistics on engineering education [8]. It combines astronautical, aeronautical, and aerospace titles into one broad category. Over the past decade, USC Astronautics has accounted for more than 3% of the master's degrees awarded in this broad combined area.
There are approximately 70 aerospace-related bachelor's degree programs in the United States [1]. ASEE identifies 61 programs in the country that award the aerospace master's degree. (In a statistical accounting quirk, ASEE lists USC's astronautical engineering master's program among "other engineering disciplines" [8]). Thus, an average aerospace master's program accounts for about 1.7% of the degrees awarded nationally. USC's Astronautics program is twice as large.
ASEE does not capture separate numbers of degrees awarded in astronautics (space engineering). Therefore, the size of the program can only be compared to others in the broad aerospace field dominated by non-space areas. Among these aerospace peers, USC Astronautics ranked the eighth or ninth largest program in the country in the 2016-2017 academic year in terms of the number of master's degrees awarded (Fig. 3).
Two US aerospace programs are significantly larger than others: Purdue University (117 master's degrees) and Georgia Institute of Technology (113). Then there is a group of 9 universities, including USC Astronautics, separated by a gap from the smaller programs: (in descending order of number of degrees awarded) University of Washington (78), University of Colorado at Boulder (74), University of Michigan (66), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (63), Stanford University (61), USC Astronautics (53), Air Force Institute of Technology (53), University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (51), and University Embry-Riddle Aeronautics in Daytona Beach (50).
One can only speculate how our program would have ranked in size if only careers in space engineering were counted; clearly, it ranks among the greatest.
Figure 2. Annual number of Master of Science degrees awarded to students online (light orange) and on campus (dark blue) in astronautical engineering since the founding of the Department of Astronautical Engineering at USC. The MS ASTE program represents more than 3% of the master's degrees awarded in the United States in the broad area of astronautical, aeronautical, and aerospace engineering.
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The majority of our online students work in the United States and are consequently US citizens or permanent residents. The fraction of foreigners among full-time astronautics students on campus is lower than in many other university engineering departments [1, 2]. This is derived from knowledge of the export control restrictions of the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR). However, students from almost twenty countries have specialized in astronautical engineering. The specific effect of ITAR on the master's program is discussed in some detail in [1,2].
All university classes, including astronautics, are open to students without nationality restrictions. International students play very active roles in the Department's Liquid Propulsion Laboratory, designing and building liquid-propellant rocket engines. This program mainly involves AstronauticsMaster students. We are also exploring the possibilities of offering the degree program online to professionals residing in foreign countries.
5. Distance education
5.1 Distance education in VSOE Quality continuing education online
Course delivery plays a particularly important role in workforce development in the space, aerospace and defense industries and in US government centers. Student interest in distance learning continues to grow.
Changes in the industry have made a master's degree desirable and even essential for a successful technical career in the United States. Consequently, many leading industrial companies and governments
The centers hire young engineering graduates with a bachelor's degree and support their pursuit of a master's degree part-time while they work full-time. Tuition coverage for such studies has become part of the standard compensation in the defense and space industries.
Online education also paves the way for engineers who graduated five, ten or more years ago with a bachelor's degree to resume their studies and earn a master's degree. Such a degree increases the chances of changing the specialization to more attractive and interesting areas of work within large companies and for promotion in a highly competitive environment.
The USC Viterbi School of Engineering became involved in distance education in the late 1960s [1,6]. Course delivery technology has evolved over the years. It began with the direct broadcast of televised courses to a network of local aerospace companies in the greater Los Angeles area. Then, in the 1990s, geostationary satellite transponders extended their reach to students outside of Southern California (Fig. 4).
Eventually, the Distance Learning Network transitioned to "webcasting," transmitting compressed video and audio over the Internet. Today, the DEN of the Viterbi School offers almost 40 master's degrees completely online.
Full-time students attend lectures on campus at the DEN studios (Fig. 5). There, instructors can talk into their cameras, use the whiteboard or smart electronic board, or present prepared presentations in preferred formats and software (such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Adobe Acrobat, specialized scientific and engineering software) from the studio desk or their own laptops.
Figure 3. Distribution of the number of Master of Science degrees awarded in the broad area of aerospace in the United States in the 2016-2017 academic year. The USC MS ASTE program graded the size 8-9. Based on ASEE data[8].
Figure 4. Distance Education Network antennas connected to transponders on geostationary satellites in 2004. Today, compressed video and audio are transmitted over the Internet. Photo courtesy of Mike Gruntman.
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Figure. 5. Typical DEN classroom study on the USC campus. (a) Instructor's desk with smart whiteboard behind and two large screens on the sides. The webcast is usually shown on screens for students to view. The instructor can use a desktop or laptop computer for prepared presentations or speak in front of him or her camera. A top camera can zoom in on a notebook on the table where the instructor writes with a thick pen. (b) Studio viewed by campus students attending classes (c) Each studio is supported by a trained operator behind a glass wall who controls the cameras, microphones, and computers in the room and maintains communications with the main control center.Photographs:Mike Gruntman .
Figure 6. (a) DEN Master Control Center monitoring webcasting and conference capture across multiple studios. (b, c) Examples of screenshots of a webcast of lectures (the author's course on rocket propulsion) viewed by students online. As Internet streaming technology evolves, the quality of webcasts is continually improving.
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Some instructors choose to use pre-printed course notes, with the top camera zooming in on a page on the table. The instructor can then write additional equations or circle some content while reviewing this specific page to emphasize specific content and expand on the printed material. The camera can also zoom into a notebook where the instructor writes and, for example, derive equations or schematics from diagrams by means of special thicker pens (for better visibility). Finally, the camera can show the instructor using a large traditional whiteboard or an electronic smart board. It is common for students to download, print, and bring the instructor's course notes to class meetings, adding their own notes to the printouts during class.
In each studio, a trained operator supports the lesson behind a glass wall (Fig. 5) and follows the instructor's instructions for selecting cameras, enlarging the papers on the instructor's desk, and switching the transmission between the desktop computer and the laptop.
Lectures are broadcast live over the web using DEN's proprietary Internet delivery system (Fig. 6). They are captured in high quality and stored on the School's servers, available for synchronous viewing via streaming and download until the end of the semester. Students can view archived lectures on their desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and mobile devices.
DEN staff interact with students electronically. Students download course notes, assignments and homework solutions, and handouts from secure, password-protected servers. Students in the Los Angeles metropolitan area take the tests on campus. In remote locations, DEN contracts with local community colleges to proctor the exams. Many large corporations and government centers have local education coordinators who may also oversee the exams. Sometimes working students are sent on business trips during the exam season. In such cases, DEN arranges proctoring of the exam locally, wherever the student is.
Some exams are closed book and others open book, the latter allow the use of course notes, textbooks, and homework and solutions. Calculators are generally required. Calculators are getting more and more powerful and sophisticated, and the differences from laptops are getting more and more blurred. Therefore, some instructors allow laptops on exams, often requiring wireless internet to be turned off. Test proctoring centers enforce the rules for online students, making them identical to those on campus and ensuring the integrity of the program. Exam integrity is also a significant operational challenge for enrolling online students residing in foreign countries.
5.2 Online Engineering Education in the US Several leading engineering schools in the US
The United States offers an online master's degree. The USC Viterbi School of Engineering shares second and third place with the University of California, Los Angeles.
Angeles (UCLA) in the latest US News and World Report national ranking of the best online graduate engineering programs in the United States [9].
The size of online programs varies greatly (Fig. 7). The Johns Hopkins University Whiting School of Engineering's largest online program enrolled 2,853 students in the 2016-2017 academic year. At the same time, many universities enroll only a few hundred students. (An enrolled student is defined as a student who has taken at least one course in an academic year.)
USC's online program combines size and quality. Although it shares second and third place in US News and World Report, it is the second largest in the country (Fig. 7), with 955 students enrolled in 2016-2017 AY. The top-ranked program at Columbia University is significantly smaller, with 305 students; the UCLA program that co-ranked with USC enrolled 474. The largest program at Johns Hopkins University ranked 19th [9].
Nationwide, ASEE statistics show that 1,152 students are pursuing a part-time master's degree in the aerospace field at
Figure 7. Distribution of enrollments in online engineering graduate programs in the United States in the 2016-2017 academic year. Programs ranged from the largest with more than 2,800 students enrolled to those with a few hundred students each. The USCViterbiSchool of Engineering was the second largest with 955 students pursuing master's degrees online, including 99 in astronautical engineering. A large number of programs enrolled with fewer than 200 students each. Based on research from United States News and WorldReport [9].
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2016-2017. This number does not include, for accounting reasons, 99 students in USC's online astronautics program. In general, statistical data from different sources is not uniformly detailed or consistent. For example, some students may be able to follow the program online full time.
In any case, it is fair to say that USC Astronautics accounts for approximately one-twelfth of the national enrollment of part-time master's students in the broader aerospace field. We can only guess what this fraction, but certainly large, would bring among students specializing in space engineering.
Online students accounted for two-thirds of the Master of Science degrees awarded by USC Astronautics (Fig. 2). Students reside throughout the United States (states colored blue in Fig. 8) where space companies, large and small, are located; satellite operators; and government space research and development centers. We also have students in Canada, as well as on military installations abroad.
The standard high-speed Internet connection allows you to view high-quality conferences at home, in the office or in a hotel room anywhere in the world. New technology paved the way for small business engineers and individuals to enroll in DEN's online programs. It also makes it possible to reach students in foreign countries and establish effective partnerships with foreign educational institutions. 6.Lesson learned. Trends and Conclusions
Internet-based technology has profoundly transformed distance education. In particular, it brought real competition to static programs dominated in the "television past" by university "monopolies" who owned the microwave bandwidth for transmissions.
Online has become a way of life for many engineers in the industry, particularly in space and defense.
Internet-enabled market competition among universities is essential to ensure the quality of online engineering programs. It provides a test of whether programs meet real world needs. Practicing engineers conveniently choose the best online programs to enroll in.
Not only is academia charged with inertia and internal politics, but America's universities are increasingly consumed by destructive political correctness and ideology-driven identity politics. Faculty voter registration at many vocational schools is overwhelmingly left-wing (eg, [10]) in a country with the electorate evenly split between the two major political parties. Thus, the pressures of real competition among online student programs encourage common sense and, in a way, mitigate the inevitable harm that results from this scary, non-merit based approach to education.
Today, many countries project military power, commercial interests, and national image through activities in space. It is a true high-tech frontier, expensive and controlled or regulated by the government. Space-enabled technologies have become an integral part of people's daily lives. The global space business has grown by more than 50% over the past decade and now exceeds $330 billion annually, with commercial space outnumbering government programs. This continued expansion requires a core engineering workforce for the space industry and government centers, and universities play an extremely important role in space engineering education.
The establishment of a separate and independent space-focused Department of Astronautical Engineering at USC in 2004 was a practical approach to achieving desired flexibility within the constraints of American academia. The growth of the program in a highly competitive environment validates the value of specialized education in astronautical engineering and degrees to the industry.
Administrative independence of space engineering departments is indispensable, as it reduces the unproductive local "political battles" so widespread among the fragmented faculty. Also, our experience points to some other features that made the program a success.
Clearly, the availability of qualified external industry experts to deliver courses as part-time faculty is necessary, but not sufficient. There must also be dedicated and experienced tenured faculty to create the program and navigate the degree and curriculum approval processes. The program must be responsive to industry needs and show an understanding of current industry practices. Such knowledge is not widespread among tenured professors who
Figure 8. USC students seeking an online Master of Science in Astronautical Engineering via distance learning reside in many states (blue), as well as Canada, and are stationed at military installations abroad.
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by the nature of the recruitment and operation of the academy they focus primarily on fundamental science.
Tenured faculty on campus must show leadership in identifying interested outside experts and introducing new courses in highly specialized areas, responding to changes in the space enterprise. They must also insulate and protect the program and external instructors as much as possible from the internal policies of the university.
Another essential lesson is the importance of building program identity. This requires a clear identification of the "customer", who is part of the space company, and the type of engineers who would particularly benefit from the courses and degrees offered. The focus on clearly defined technology areas and the grouping, "bundling," of focused courses in these areas attract working students seeking programs to further their educational goals. In fact, these objectives are sometimes vague and a well-defined software package can be useful for them.
It should also be open to student feedback. Listening to mature students and actually seeking their advice can provide important insight into the needs of the industry.
On a practical level, the financial strength of the program is another important feature. It is easier to get administrative support for experimentation and further growth of the program if the program brings money to the school instead of being a burden. Such financial strength can only be achieved when the program reaches a certain "critical mass" of students and continually strives to sustain student interest.
The latter requires relentless marketing outreach to the industry and potential new students. Here, the quality of the program and the student experience become crucial, as graduates of the program become, over time, its best ambassadors. Many new students from large "legacy" space companies tell us they learned about the program and its value from their peers who have graduated with our degrees in the past.
In conclusion, the experience of the online Master of Astronautical Engineering program shows that it meets the existing real needs for development of the space engineering workforce and makes an important contribution to the space enterprise.
Ad Astra! expressions of gratitude
I would like to thank VSOE Associate Dean Binh Tran for his help with some statistical data.
The opinions expressed in this article are those of the author. References
[1] M. Gruntman, Advanced Degrees in Astronautical Engineering for the Space Industry, Acta Astronautica 103 (2014) 92–105; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2014.06.016, also http://astronauticsnow.com/2014aste.pdf (accessed April 24, 2018).
[2] M. Gruntman, The Time for Academic Departments in Astronautical Engineering, AIAA-2007-6042, AIAA Space-2007, LongBeach, California, 2015; http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.2514/6.2007-6042; also http://astronauticsnow.com/aiaa-2007-6042.pdf (accessed April 24, 2018).
[3] B. W. McCormick, C. Newberry y E. Jumper (eds.), AerospaceEngineering EducationDuring the First Century of Flight, AIAA, Reston, Virginia, 2004.
[4] radiofrecuencia Brodsky, Na vanguardia. Tales of the Cold WarEngineer at the Dawn of the Nuclear, Guided Missile, Computer and Space Ages, Gordian Knot Books, 2006 (p.148).
[5] R. E. Kaplan, University of Southern California Aerospace Engineering, em: B. McCormick, C. Newberry, E. Jumper (eds.), Aerospace Engineering Education During the First Century of Flight, AIAA, Reston, VA , 2004, pp.
[6] RE Vivian, The USC Engineering Story, USC Press, Los Ángeles, California, 1975.
[7] USC Astronautics Graduate Commencement: 2016, https://youtu.be/iTQkv45E1yI, (accessed March 10, 2018); 2017, https://youtu.be/dfZeZuhVyo0, (accessed March 10, 2018); 2018, https://youtu.be/QBjY5_SxE6c, (accessed June 1, 2018).
[8] Engineering and Engineering Technology College Profiles, American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE), Washington, DC, 2018; also http://profiles.asee.org; (accessed February 28, 2018).
[9] Best Graduate Engineering Programs Online, US News and World Report, http://www.usnews.com; (accessed February 15, 2018).
[10] M. Langbert, A.J. Quain and D. B. Klein, Registrar of Voters for the Faculty of Economics, History, Journalism, Law, and Psychology, Econ Journal Watch: Scholarly Comments on Academic Economics 13 (3) (2016) 422–451.
[11] M. Gruntman, The History of Space Flight, in: J.R. Wertz, D.F. Everett, J. J. Puschell (Eds.), Space Mission Engineering: TheNew SMAD, Microcosm Press, Hawthorne, California, 2011, pp. 4–10; also http://astronauticsnow.com/2011spaceflight.pdf, (accessed April 24, 2018).
Advanced Degrees in Astronautical Engineering for the Space Industry
mike gruntman
Department of Astronautical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1192, USA.
in fortress
Article history: Received January 2, 2014 Received in revised form May 7, 2014 Accepted June 11, 2014 Available online June 19, 2014
Keywords: Space education Astronautical engineering Space engineering Workforce development Distance learning Space systems
resume
Ten years ago, in the summer of 2004, the University of Southern California established a unique new academic unit focused on space engineering. Initially known as the Division of Astronautics and Space Technology, the unit operated from day one as an independent academic department, successfully introducing the full suite of degrees in Astronautical Engineering, and was formally renamed the Department of Astronautical Engineering in 2010. The educational programs from the Department were and remain its flagship Master of Science, specifically focused on meeting the development needs of the engineering workforce of the space industry and government space research and development centers. The program has successfully grown from an astronautics specialization developed in the mid-1990s and has expanded into a large, nationally visible program. In addition to full-time students on campus, it reaches many students working online through distance learning. This article looks at the origins of the master's program and its current status and achievements; describes the program structure, academic focus, student composition, and enrollment dynamics; and discusses lessons learned and future challenges.
and 2014 AIA. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of the AIA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Ten years ago, in June 2004, the University of Southern California (USC) announced the establishment of a new academic unit dedicated to space engineering [1]. Initially known as the Astronautics and Space Technology Division (ASTD), the unit operated from day one as an independent academic department and successfully introduced the full suite of degrees (bachelor's, minor's, master's, engineering, doctoral, and Certificate of Studies). Graduate) in Astronautical Engineering. (The author of this article had the privilege of serving as the founding president of ASTD from 2004 to 2007.) The Division was formally renamed the Department of Astronautics.
Engineering at USC Viterbi School of Engineering (VSOE) in 2010.
In the United States, space engineering education was traditionally part of a significantly broader aerospace curriculum, historically anchored in aeronautics and dominated by engineering and fluid-focused sciences. Aerospace degrees are typically offered by aerospace engineering departments or by departments that combine the aerospace industry with other engineering disciplines, particularly mechanical engineering.
On the other hand, USC has established a unique academic department focused on pure space to address specific challenges in teaching space engineering. The largest component of the Department of Astronautical Engineering has been and continues to be its flagship Master of Science in Astronautical Engineering (MS ASTE) program, specifically focused on meeting the needs of the American space industry and government space research and development.
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Acta Astronáutica 103 (2014) 92–105
centers. This program has successfully grown from an astronautics specialization developed in the mid-1990s and has expanded into a large, nationally visible program [1].
The tenth anniversary of the creation of the Independent Department is a propitious moment to review the state of the program; summarize your achievements, impact and challenges; and look to the future. We specifically focus here on the Department's industry-oriented MS. ASTE program, with other careers outside the scope of this article. First, the rationale for creating separate astronautical engineering departments is discussed, followed by the details of program development at USC. Below, we describe the program's structure, courses, students, and the role of distance learning in M.S.ASTE. The article concludes by placing the program in a broader perspective of trends in the global space enterprise.
2. Rationale for independent astronautics departments
Gruntman [1] discussed in detail the rationale for establishing a separate department in astronautical engineering. Briefly, after the onset of the space age in the late 1950s, space engineering education found a home in existing aeronautical engineering departments [2], which changed their names to "Aerospace" or some variant of "Aeronautics." and Astronautics". aeronautical applications, with some additional courses on space-related topics, mainly orbital mechanics and rocket propulsion [3-5]. At the same time, the American space effort was greatly expanded toward space exploration and national security.
In the 1970s and early 1980s, space education advocates advocated the establishment of a "pure" astronautics curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) and higher degrees in astronautical engineering [3 ,4]. They hoped that such a development would give "astronautics" the same status as "aeronautics" in aerospace engineering departments, and thus advance space education.
Many important changes took place in the following years. The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) recognizes astronautical engineering as a separate degree from aerospace. (ABET grants accreditation to qualifying bachelor's of engineering degrees. Master of science degrees do not require accreditation, with the exception, for historical reasons, of those offered by two military institutions [1,6].) Many aerospace and Combined Aerospace Programs (as US universities' mechanical and aerospace engineering departments offer space-related courses for undergraduate and graduate students.
It could be argued that astronautical engineering was thus accepted. A more accurate characterization of the situation would be that space engineering is “tolerated” by aerospace departments to varying degrees [1]. Fluid sciences with aeronautical and astronautical applications certainly do not have the same status in many current aerospace programs.
generic “aerospace engineering” combining aeronautical, astronautical, and aerospace titles. A quick glance at the academy job announcement for Aerospace America, a monthly magazine published by the American Institute of Astronautics and Aeronautics (AIAA), does not suggest any future shifts in emphasis or transformation of aerospace programs.
At major American research universities, faculty largely determine the fields of their concentration, and changing faculty's areas of interest is not easy. It takes decades for the dead branches of the evolutionary tree to fall off and new directions to replace them in existing academic structures. Outside of universities, the world of space technology is very dynamic, cannot afford to evolve slowly, and continues to expand. Teller once commented [8] "that the most inert substance known to man is the human brain, and that the most inert substance is the collection of human brains found in a large organization, such as the military service or the faculty of a university”.
The reality of the academy forces teachers to vigorously defend their territory and favor the hiring of new professors in areas of their own research interests. A change in departmental direction requires a determined effort on the part of visionary and powerful managers. Many aerospace programs have really expanded their scope in the last 10 to 15 years, hiring new faculty in emerging interdisciplinary areas like mechatronics and nanotechnology, rather than traditional space fields like spacecraft attitude dynamics or thermal control of satellites and feedback systems. Energy. "astronautics" and "aeronautics" in the aerospace departments did not materialize. The space curriculum at many universities is limited, and the age-old question "Is there room in the aerospace industry?" [9] remains.
Accordingly, [1] called for the establishment, in some universities, of separate academic space departments offering degrees in astronautical engineering to better serve the needs of the space industry and government centers. astronautical engineering as a separate degree. Importantly, separate astronautical engineering departments could change the existing (rarely fair) competition between faculty groups within aerospace departments to (much more even) competition between aerospace, astronautics, and aeronautics departments in various fields. universities.
It was specifically emphasized [1] that the creation of astronautical engineering departments was a practical approach to achieving the desired flexibility within the constraints of the glacially changing realities of academia. The resulting competition between departments and universities would force a balanced mix of programs offered, determined by national educational needs, and better respond to the challenges of developing the space enterprise engineering workforce.
3. Astronautical Engineering at USC
USC aerospace engineering was very typical of the country.
M. Gruntman / Astronautical Acta 103 (2014) 92–105 93
since the founding of the Department of Aerospace Engineering in 1964. (The aerospace engineering option in mechanical engineering dates back to the late 1950s.) The department's first chair had been head of the fluid physics section at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory before joining USC [10]. In the 1980s, adjunct professors offered only a few courses in space technology to graduate students [1,9,11]. A general observation about the aerospace college in the country that "...most [of the college] are well established in research and dedicated to aeronautics and therefore have little incentive to be interested in space technology"[ 3] applies to USC.
On a historical note, the first man on the moon, Neil Armstrong, was one of USC's most distinguished aerospace graduates at the time. He studied part-time while stationed at Edwards Air Force Base in California as a test pilot [10]. Armstrong had completed all of the required courses, except seminar, for his master's degree when he joined NASA in the early 1960s and moved to Houston, Texas. In January 1970, Armstrong gave a one-hour seminar on the technical aspects of landing the Apollo Eagle lunar module on the surface of the Moon in 1969 and received, immediately after the seminar, his Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering from USC.
However, the composition of the Department of Aerospace Engineering's faculty changed somewhat in the early 1990s, as several full professors in modern research areas such as hypersonic flight, physical kinetics, space science, and space instrumentation were added. This group formed the nucleus of the Department's Astronautics Program. (The Department of Aerospace Engineering merged with the Department of Mechanical Engineering in 1998-1999, forming the Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering [12].)
The attitude of many USC aerospace professors toward space technology was not much different from that of other engineering schools across the country. A history of the department [12] published in 2004 by its former chair highlighted the challenges facing astronautics programs within the broader area of aerospace at universities. History only casually mentions the existence of the department's specialization in astronautics once, at a time when courses offered by this purely space program accounted for 80% of graduate students enrolled in aerospace courses, while non-aerospace courses attracted to the top 20%. students. In addition, the recently established undergraduate major in astronautics was also approaching half of the total enrollment in the aerospace program [1,11].
USC's aerospace engineering program was fairly typical of American universities [13] in other ways as well: After rapid growth and high enrollment, the undergraduate and graduate student population declined in the late 1990s. 1990 after the end of the Cold War, by factors of five and two, respectively, from their peaks. 10.12].
The response of the astronautically oriented faculty to the atmosphere of pessimism that prevailed in the mid-1990s was to found the Program in Astronautics and Space Technology (Astronautics Program) by taking advantage of some obvious opportunities [1,11]. First of all, specifically
focused on providing engineering degrees in the area of spacecraft technology to the space industry and government research and development centers. The University is strategically located in Los Angeles, in the heart of the American space industry in Southern California. In the early 2000s, California accounted for about half of the US space company's revenue and dominated (80%) the satellite segment of the market [14]. California remains home to a major space effort to this day.
Second, we initially focused on the Master of Science program. Three to four decades ago, engineers with a bachelor's degree could have satisfying and rewarding technical careers. Today, changes in the industry have made master's degrees (sometimes called "the ultimate degree") desirable for a successful technical career in the United States. Consequently, many major industrial companies and government centers now hire young engineering graduates with bachelor's degrees and support their pursuit of master's degrees part-time while working full-time. In fact, tuition coverage for such studies has become part of standard compensation packages in the aerospace and defense industries.
Third, we leverage VSOE's existing distance learning resources (discussed below) to reach students across the country. Distance education plays an increasingly important role in the pursuit of a master's degree in engineering.
Last but not least, the traditional diversity of arrangements in US higher education has made it easier and possible to experiment with new approaches. The University of Southern California, the largest and oldest private university on the West Coast, has a long tradition of working with the aerospace and defense industries. Consequently, the USC Viterbi School of Engineering was a natural home for an initiative in space technology.
Thus, in the mid-1990s, the Department of Aerospace Engineering's college of astronautics began expanding courses of interest to the space industry and government research and development centers in southern California [1,11]. Starting with just a few space-related courses taught by regular and adjunct faculty, the curriculum has grown steadily. The master's program with an emphasis in astronautics was first recognized as a major in 1997. The University formally approved it in 1998 and assigned it a separate, independent ZIP code. This was followed by the approval of the Graduation Certificate and Bachelor of Science specializations [1].
Student interest in a given program may be characterized by annual enrollment in program classes, NS, during one academic year. Fig. 1 shows annual student enrollment in classes offered by the master's in astronautics program since its inception in the 1990s. At USC, the academic year begins in the fall semester and includes the spring and summer semesters of the next calendar year. (For example, the 08-09 academic year includes the Fall 2008 and Spring and Summer 2009 semesters.) VSOE offers few classes during the summer, when most students take a break from their studies. The NS number directly reflects the tuition revenue generated by the program. USC is a private university without generous subsidies enjoyed by many competing state institutions of higher learning that
M. Gruntman / Astronautical Acta 103 (2014) 92–10594
makes the financial strength of our programs particularly important.
Figure 1 also reveals the importance of clear program self-identification for its growth. A separate program often attracts motivated students seeking education in a particular area of engineering. Passage of the Independent Astronautics major in 1997–1998 increased student enrollment in the program's classes by 60% in one year. in astronautical engineering led to another surge in student interest. Here, graduate student enrollment in classes has increased by 80% in three years. This increase demonstrated the opportunity and benefits of establishing an independent space engineering department.
Some minor year-to-year changes in the number of students enrolled in program classes are caused by various factors, such as faculty sabbaticals; changes intuition refund policies at major space companies; state of the national economy and industry; and even the loss or award of a particular major government contract by a particular company. Despite these variations, Fig. 1 clearly shows the trends.
After the creation of the new Department of Astronautical Engineering in 2004, it took a year to establish the complete set of careers in astronautical engineering and more than two years to get the academic unit up and running. By the way, building a new academic department is a prodigious task. Since this does not happen often in universities, many arrangements need to be reinvented. The sheer number of administrative loose ends that need to be tied up is staggering.
In addition to M. S. ASTE, the Department offers other titles, but their discussion is beyond the scope of this article. We note here that the new Ph.D. The program in astronautical engineering got off to a good start, with 11 Ph.D. qualifications obtained in the last two academic years
years alone. Ph.D. Concentrations students are aligned with faculty expertise and research interests. TheB.S. The Astronautical Engineering program enrolls 10 to 20 new students each year, with freshman class size limited by the VSOE. The new BS program received ABET accreditation in 2011–2012. therefore, accreditation takes 6 to 8 years). The Department actively creates opportunities for student team projects, such as designing and building sounding rockets, as well as space-related systems; the latter in collaboration with the VSOE's Institute of Information Sciences (ISI) [15,16].
In 2003, the then Rector of the Viterbi School Prof. Max Nikias (who became USC President in 2010), Dr. Simon "Pete" Worden (then at the Center for Space and Missile Systems, and now Director of NASA Ames Research Center), and later President of Aerospace Corporation, Dr. William F. Ballhaus, Jr. challenged US Castronautics faculty and ISI scientists to advance science and engineering (creating a "Bell Labs of Space") of cost-effective microsatellite systems. The Drs. of ISI Joe Sullivan and Peter Will and the author of this article led this great initiative, with Stan Dubyn (co-founder of Spectrum Astro, Inc. and founder of Millennium Space Systems) and Dave Barnhart (then Vice President of Millennium Space Systems) also playing roles. particularly important.
This initial effort from 2003 to 2007 developed programs that expanded into other areas of specialized technology and engineering workforce development and laid the foundation for the subsequent creation of the VSOE Space Engineering Research Center (SERC) in 2007-2008. After 2007, SERC and ISI activities significantly shifted the focus of the initiative from initial goals to student-centered projects [16]. Astronautics students participated in the development of microsatellites at the SERC, with two orbiting cubes.
4. Master in Astronautical Engineering
The MSc in Astronautical Engineering is one of many advanced degrees offered by the ViterbiSchool of Engineering. For many years, the VSOE Distance Learning Network (DEN) has played an important role in offering Master's programmes, cementing traditionally strong ties with industry. In addition to full-time students on campus, full-time engineers enroll in the distance learning program as part-time students. In the 2011–2012 academic year, Viterbi School awarded 1,661 M.S. degrees in engineering (1,224 degrees excluding computer science), more than any other engineering school in the United States [7]. Distance learning students earned 301, or 18%, of these degrees.
Three practical considerations focused our initial effort in developing the specialization in space engineering at the master's level. (The author of this article has directed the master's program from its inception to the present day.) First, there was a clear interest in working with full-time students in the space industry, particularly in the South.
Fig. 1. Annual enrollment (school year) of the student in the classes, NS, offered by the USC Master's Program in Astronautics since its inception. AE/AME – Departments of Aerospace Engineering and Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering; ASTD – Astronautics and Space Technology Division.
M. Gruntman / Astronautical Acta 103 (2014) 92–105 95
California. Here, School's DEN provided a powerful tool to conveniently reach these students throughout California and beyond.
The second contributing factor was the seemingly endless and especially strong resistance in academia to separate university astronautics programs. Even today, there are only three astronautical engineering degree programs nationwide[1].
The last consideration was the possibility of having adjunct professors and part-time professors to teach highly specialized graduate classes, in contrast to undergraduate courses generally taught by full-time professors. new college.
4.1. Program structure and courses.
The MS ASTE degree program is open to qualified students with a B.S. degrees in engineering, mathematics or hard sciences from regionally accredited universities. Unlike many other aerospace programs, we do not require a bachelor's degree in astronautical or aerospace engineering, and we also admit students with experience in other areas of engineering and science.
The MS ASTE course consists of nine courses (27 units), with typical graduate semester classes of 3 units each. The program typically offers 8-10 graduate astronautics classes each semester. Virtually all of our graduate classes are available not only to on-campus students, but also to remote online students through DEN. Writing a master's thesis is an option, but not a requirement. The thesis earns 4 units of credit, generally supplemented by 2 units of directed research. Most of the students prefer the courses; some, however, choose to write theses, which requires a lot of effort.
A typical full-time student studies on campus, takes three courses per semester, and completes the entire program in three semesters or a year and a half. A student who works full time studies part time and usually takes one course every semester or sometimes two. (The workload in the main job, which varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances, determines the number of courses for part-time students.) Therefore, it takes an average of 4 years for a working student to earn a degree.
To get the M.S. ASTE degree, students must take four required courses (12 units); two core electives (6 units) chosen from a list of core electives; two elective technical subjects (6 units); and one course (3 units) in mathematical engineering chosen from a list of four different courses. Required courses include three general overview courses in (i) spacecraft systems design, (ii) spacecraft propulsion, and (iii) space environment and spacecraft interactions. The fourth required course is orbital mechanics.
A typical 3-unit course consists of 12-13 weekly three-hour lectures and two exams (interim exam and final exam) supplemented by weekly homework.
and sometimes term papers and projects. The program's core spacecraft systems design course (taught by the author of this article) provides a broad overview of fundamental science and engineering topics essential to understanding satellites and their launch systems, as well as operations and Applications. It introduces key concepts and nomenclature, emphasizes the interaction between various satellite subsystems and design decisions, and puts various areas of space technology into perspective. Many subsequent electives explore these specific subsystems in depth and detail.
The required Spacecraft Systems Design course also serves as a gateway both for students with college degrees in non-astronautical and non-aerospace engineering, as well as those who have been out of school for a few years. Some students in the latter category have been promoted to technical project engineering management positions and this course helps them return to technical studies. The course is also popular with students seeking degrees in other areas of engineering and planning for careers in the space industry. More than 1,100 graduate students have enrolled in this spacecraft systems design course in the past ten years.
Core electives cover satellite subsystems, specialized propulsion, advanced orbital mechanics, attitude dynamics, and space mission problems and system design. The Astronautics program aims to offer general courses on space systems, orbital mechanics and space environment and complement them with courses focused on satellite subsystems, key applications and emerging technologies. While we cover many satellite subsystems at this point, there are a few areas where we would like to introduce new courses. The introduction of new courses is constrained by two main factors: attracting qualified instructors who are actively working in areas of interest, and limited budget allocations and distance learning infrastructure. Even maintaining the current offering of over twenty courses presents an administrative challenge, as our outside instructors occasionally have schedule conflicts or move to other parts of the country.
There are several areas where we plan to bring new courses. In the 2014-2015 academic year, for example, three new courses are being introduced, in human spaceflight, launch vehicle design, and plasma dynamics. Among our development priorities are courses on space systems (reliability of space systems; space debris), subsystems and new technologies (ground control segment; space software; entry, descent and landing; cryogenic space technology, including superconductivity; satellites small, including cubesatellites). ), and applications (global navigation systems; communication satellites; space solar power systems).
Most course lectures involve little interaction with students because many take courses through the DEN (discussed below in Section 4.3). The exception in our program is the Space Studio architecture course. Each year, this study addresses a specific topic, such as,
M. Gruntman / Astronautical Acta 103 (2014) 92–10596
design of a lunar base, exploration facilities on Mars, future manned spaceflight or planetary defense. A student in the studio chooses a component that fits the theme and focuses on its design. Student presentations during this semester and especially during midterms and finals involve extensive interactions and discussions. We limit course enrollment to ten students, half on campus and half at DEN. Currently, the studio primarily uses WebEx for presentations and discussions. As technology evolves, we may improve the format.
The Astronautics Program never limits the choice of technical electives to the courses offered by the department of origin, but rather emphasizes the importance of choosing the courses that best contribute to achieving the educational goals of the students. Most non-astronautical science and engineering graduate courses are approved as technical electives. (We only limit courses to topics outside of classical engineering and science, such as engineering program management.) Many students find the space-focused core elective courses so appealing that they choose all of their technical options from this list.
Table 1 shows the astronautics courses currently offered to graduate students. We are continually working to add new courses, based on the availability of qualified instructors, distance learning study openings, and programmatic needs.
The MS ASTE program typically offers 8-10 courses per semester in two dozen Astronautics courses. All required courses are offered at least once a year and some twice a year. Students can also take many popular core elective courses (for example, Advanced Spacecraft Propulsion, Spacecraft Power Systems, and Orbital Mechanics II) every year, while other highly specialized courses are available every other year. This latter schedule allows us to use the same amount of valuable distance learning study space to run a larger number of different courses.
available to students. Since many full-time working students take four years to complete their studies, careful planning of their courses often allows them to take as many courses as they want.
Although many students prefer to begin their studies with the general spacecraft systems design and space environment courses, the program does not require a specific sequence of courses. However, there are some exceptions. For example, a space navigation course requires an introduction to orbital mechanics as a prerequisite, and liquid propulsion and advanced courses require prior courses in spacecraft propulsion. Some students, particularly with an aerospace background, were exposed to topics covered by some required courses, such as propulsion and orbital mechanics, during their undergraduate studies. In these cases, the required discipline is waived and the student is enrolled in an additional technical elective.
The MS ASTE program provides an important educational foundation for entry into systems engineering of major space systems. A traditional path to these highly sought after positions in the space industry first required excellence in a particular area of engineering. Consequently, we see interest in our program among qualified engineers with non-astronautical experience. Some already have master's degrees in mechanics, electricity, computers, and other engineering fields and are working successfully in their specializations. They enroll in M.S.ASTE to gain a better understanding of other aspects of space systems. A degree in astronautical engineering is a natural path for them to reach technical and managerial leadership positions in space programs.
It is important to note the difference between the M.S. ASTE program from two other areas of study.
First, the focus of the program is not on systems engineering, although we recognize its particular importance for the development and operation of space systems. The M.S.ASTE program focuses on the traditional areas of science and engineering applied to space systems. Students may take one or two elective technical courses in systems engineering or architecture offered by other engineering departments. A student with a strong interest in such studies is usually recommended to advance to dedicated systems engineering or systems architecture programs.
The other distinctly different field of study of the MSASTE program is often referred to as "space studies" in contrast to "space engineering." Space studies often combine some science and engineering classes with courses related to space policy; legal, administrative, communication and commercial aspects; and program development. The University of North Dakota in the United States, the International Space University in Strasbourg, France, and Delft University in the Netherlands [17] are among the best-known educational institutions in this field. In contrast, USC's astronautical engineering program focuses on specific technical areas of importance to the research, development, design, construction, and operation of space systems.
4.2. Program teachers and speakers
Adjunct professors and part-time professors play a particularly important role in MS. ASTE program. Graduate
Table 1Astronautics courses offered for postgraduate credit.
Required Courses Spacecraft Systems Design Spacecraft Propulsion Space Environment and Spacecraft Interactions Orbital Mechanics I
Electives and Core Electives Orbital Mechanics II Space Navigation: Principles and Practice Advanced Space Navigation Liquid Rocket Propulsion Advanced Space Propulsion Space Launch Vehicle Propulsion (to be presented in 2015) Gas Dynamics Physics I, IIP Lasma Dynamics (to be presented in 2014) Mission Design Low Cost Space Space Space Survey Human Architecture Space Flight (to be introduced in 2014) Space Mission and Systems Safety Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics Attitude Control Spacecraft Structural Dynamics Spacecraft Structural Materials Spacecraft Power Systems Spacecraft Thermal Control Systems Spacecraft for Space Remote Sensing Spacecraft Sensors
M. Gruntman / Astronautical Acta 103 (2014) 92–105 97
Engineering programs in the United States are traditionally aligned with academic pursuits in areas where doctoral degrees are normally awarded. Some areas of space engineering are not directly compatible with doctoral studies. For example, spacecraft design is generally not considered an academic field because the knowledge base needed to be a skilled designer is broader than it is deep. Interestingly, this particular area attracts a large number of inquiries about the possibilities of earning a Ph.D.
Additionally, many areas of critical importance to the space industry are sufficiently specialized and rapidly evolving that no university faculty member is likely to have experience in them unless they have spent years working in the industry. Ironically, in the latter case, such a specialist would hardly qualify for a position at a research university due to the overriding requirement of outstanding academic achievement, including publications in academically recognized peer-reviewed journals. Examples of these specialized areas are spacecraft power systems and spacecraft thermal control. The need to cover a large number of highly specialized areas makes it impossible to offer comprehensive astronautics careers that respond to the needs of the space industry within the instruction given solely by regular university professors.
Consequently, our solution for the development of the program was a combination of regular professors, adjunct professors, and part-time professors. Regular faculty focus primarily on basic science and technology such as dynamics, gases and plasmas, space science and spacecraft design fundamentals, orbital mechanics, propulsion, and the space environment. Adjunct professors, who are leading specialists, generally employed full-time in the space industry and in government research and development centers, cover the highly specialized and rapidly changing areas of space technology. They also bring real-world experience, a vital component of a high-quality engineering education program.
Adjunct faculty and part-time faculty are the pride and strength of our program. They work at numerous companies and space centers large and small, including Boeing, Lockheed-Martin, Raytheon, Aerojet-Rocketdyne, Microcosm, Space Environment Technologies, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and The Aerospace Corporation. Access to an unparalleled wealth of top experts in the Los Angeles area allows us to offer a wide variety of courses in space technology and launch new courses as needed. These courses contain current space industry practices of particular interest to many of our M.S.ASTE students. Some adjunct professors also play an active role in advising doctoral students. students.
4.3. Role of distance education
Opportunities provided by the VSOE Distance Learning Network played a facilitating role in launching the USC Astronautics Program. DEN is among the largest engineering distance education programs in the United States, with 301 master's degrees awarded in the 2011–2012 academic year. Distance learning students in astronautics accounted for about a tenth of these degrees.
The USC School of Engineering began a pioneering effort in distance education, first called the Instructional Television Network (ITV), in 1968. A year later, the Federal Communications Commission approved the installation of television transmitters at Mount Lee in the hills above Hollywood, with broadcasts reaching the Los Angeles Basin and the San Fernando Valley. With a subsidy from the Olin Foundation, the School built the technical facilities and began televised classes in 1972 [10].
ITV provided interactive one-way video and two-way audio transmissions, with remote classrooms set up at local aerospace companies such as Hughes, McDonnell Douglas, Rockwell, TRW, Burroughs, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, The Aerospace Corporation and many others. However, the system had limitations and was expensive. It required affiliated companies to maintain special distance learning centers and provide reception for USC television broadcasts.
ITV coverage was also limited to the Los Angeles area. A USC courier drove daily to pick up homework and deliver corrected homework, new homework, and course handouts to remote locations. The exams were held on campus. In the 1990s, ITV began leasing transponders on geostationary satellites to extend reach to students outside of Southern California (Fig. 2).
In the late 1990s, VSOE reorganized ITV into the Distance Learning Network. Course delivery has shifted to "webcasting," the transmission of compressed video and audio over the Internet. The standard high-speed Internet connection allows you to view conferences at home, in the office or in a hotel room anywhere in the world. The high-quality webcast has opened a space for small businesses and individuals to apply for DEN's online programs. New web technology has had a profound impact on distance education, drastically expanding the reach and bringing competition to previously static programs. Online continuing education has become a way of life for many engineers in the industry.
Full-time students attend class meetings in special DEN-equipped studios on campus, and lectures are simulcast via the web for online students. Distant students can view lectures in real time over the Internet and can call using special toll-free lines to ask questions. Interaction with students in the classroom is usually limited to
Fig. 2. Antennas of the Distance Education Network in 2004.
M. Gruntman / Astronautical Acta 103 (2014) 92–10598
answers to questions posed in class. While remote students watching live lectures can call in, this is often not the case. This is because many do not see the conferences in real time and also for those who ask these types of questions, it sometimes involves a delay in dialing and connecting through the control room as the conference progresses. Due to the distance of the students, many teachers do not encourage exchanges with students in the classroom. The exception are some courses that essentially depend on interaction with the instructor and among students. Such arrangements present technical challenges at this time. We offer one of these courses as discussed in Section 4.1 above. In general, distance learning courses, especially those with large student enrollments, have significantly reduced interaction during classes. One possible solution could be online chat rooms, moderated by TAs and with some participation from instructors at certain times.
After class meetings, the lectures are stored on the VSOE servers and can be accessed by students as many times as they want during the semester. This asynchronous access is especially important for professionals balancing demanding work schedules, business-related travel, families, and studies. Additionally, the asynchronous view is convenient for many students who reside in time zones other than Los Angeles. As a result, some online students do not attend classes in real time unless the classes require interaction.
In the study hall, instructors can speak to the camera in front of them or show prepared presentations in their preferred format and software (such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Adobe Acrobat, specialized scientific and engineering software) from desktop or laptop computers. Some instructors choose to use pre-printed course notes, with the top camera zooming on the page. The instructor can then write additional equations or add an outline or circle some content while discussing this specific page to emphasize the specific content and thus augment the printed material. The camera can also zoom into a special notebook where the instructor writes and, for example, derives equations or diagram schemes with a pen. (Special pens with slightly thicker lines than conventional ones are used to improve the visibility of the writing.) Finally, the camera can show the instructor using a large white board or a traditional whiteboard. It is common for students to download, print, and bring the instructor's course notes to class, adding their own notes to the printouts during class.
Fig. 3 shows a typical DEN studio where the instructor's desk can be seen with three large monitors behind it on the wall continuously showing feeds from cameras, computers, and broadcast to students watching the lesson in the classroom. by Internet. A permanent desktop computer supports each study, although many instructors prefer to bring their own laptops and go online.
(PDF) Department of Astronautical Engineering, University of the South ...astronauticsnow.com/aste.pdf The new Department of Astronautical Engineering (ASTE) at the USC Viterbi School - DOKUMEN.TIPS (2023)
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